Symptoms And Treatment of Knee Pain :

Anterior knee pain is the most common presenting symptoms in many physiotherapy and sports physician practises.1 It contributes substantially to the 20-40% of family practise consultations that relate to the musculoskeletal system. Two common causes of anterior knee pain in sports people are patellofemoral pain and patellar tendinopathy.

We first outline a practical approach to assessing the  patient  with  anterior knee pain particularly with a view to distinguishing the common conditions; we  then detail their management. These concludes with an outline of other cause of anterior knee pain such as fat pad impingement, which may mimic features of both patellofemoral pain and patellar tendinopathy.

Clinical approach

Distinguishing between patellofemoral pain and patellar tendinopathy as a cause of anterior knee pain can be difficult as their clinical features can be similar. Furthermore, on occasions, the two conditions may both be present.

History

There are a number of important factors to elicit from the history of a sportsperson with the general presentation of anterior knee pain. These include the specific location of the pain, the nature of aggravating activities, the history of the onset and behaviour of the pain and any associated clicking, giving way of swelling.

Although it may be difficult for the patient with anterior knee pain to be specific, the area of pain often gives an important clue as to which structure is contributing to the pain .For example, retropatellar or peripatellar pain suggests that the patellofemoral joint (PFJ) is a likely culprit, lateral pain localized to the lateral femoral epicondyle indicates iliotibial band friction syndrome and inferior patellar pain implicates the patellar tendon or infrapatellar fat pad. The patient presents with bilateral knee pain is more likely to have patellofermoral pain or tendinopathy than an interal derangement of both knees.

The onset of typical patellofemoral pain is often insidious but it may present secondary to an acute traumatic episode (e.g. falling on the knee) or post other knee injury (e.g. meniscal, ligament) or knee surgery. The patient presents with a diffuse ache, which is usually exacerbated by loaded activities, such as stair ambulation or running. Sometimes patellofemoral pain is aggravated by prolonged sitting (movie-goers knee), but sitting tends to aggravate pain of patellar tendinopathy so is not diagnostic of patellofemoral pain. Pain during running that gradually worsens is more likely to be of patellofemoral origin, whereas pain that occurs at the start of activity, settles after warm-up and returns after activity is more likely to be patellar tendinopathy. To clinical differentiation of patellofemoral pain, patellar tendinopathy and fat pad impingement. As these conditions can coexist, accurate diagnosis can be challenging.

A history of recurrent crepitus may suggest patellofemoral pain. A feeling that the patella moves laterally at certain times suggests recurrent patellofemoral instability. An imminent feeling of giving way may be associated with patellar subluxation, patellofemoral pain or meniscal abnormality, although frank, dramatic giving way is usually associated with anterior cruciate ligament instability. Nevertheless, giving way due to muscle inhibition, or due to pain, is not uncommon in anterior knee pain presentations.

Examination

Initially, the primary aim of the clinical assessment to determine the most likely cause of the patient’s since location of tenderness and aggravating factors are integral to the differential diagnosis, it is critical to reproduce the patient’s anterior knee pain. This is usually done with either a double- or single-leg squat. A squat done on a decline may make the test more specific to the anterior knee. The clinician should palpate the anterior knee carefully to determine the site of maximal tenderness.

Examination includes:

1. Observation

• standing
• walking
• supine

2. Functional tests

• squats
• step-up/step-down
• jump
• lunge
• double-then single – leg decline squat

3. Paplation

• patella and inferior pole
• medial lateral retinaculum
• patellar tendon
• infrapatellar fat pad
• tibial tubercle
• effusion

4. PFI assessment

static assessment of patella position

• superior
• inferior
• medial
• lateral glide
• dynamic assessment of patella position
• assessment of vasti function

5. Flexibility

• lateral soft tissue structures
• quadriceps
• hamstring
• iliotibial band
• gastrocnemius

Investigations

Imaging may be used to confirm a clinical impression obtained from the history and examination. Structural imaging includes conventional radiography, ultrasound, CT and MRI. Occasionally, radionuclide bone scan is indicated to evaluate the metabolic status of the knee (e.g. after trauma, in suspected stress fracture).

The majority of patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome will require either no imaging, or plain radiography consisting of a standard AP view, a true lateral view with the knee in 300 of flexion, and an axial view through the knee in 300 of flexion. Plain radiography can detect bipartite patella and osteoarthritis, provide evidence of an increased likelihood of Sinding-Larsen-Johansson lesions as well as rule out potentially serious complications such as tumor or infection .Although CT and three dimensional CT have been used to assess the PFI ,MRI is gaining increasing popularity as an investigations of patellofermoral pain, and the unstable patella because of its capacity to image the patellar articular cartilage.

Treatment

Treatment of patellar tendinopathy requires patience and a multifaceted approach, which is outlined. It is essential that the practitioner and patience recognize that tendinopathy that has been present for months may require a considerable period of treatment associated with rehabilitation before symptoms disappear. Conservative management of patellar tendinopathy requires appropriate strengthening exercises, load reduction, correcting biomechanical errors, and soft tissue therapy. An innovation has been the use of sclerotherapy of neovessels with polidocanol.

Surgery is indicated after a considered and lengthy conservative program has failed. This section outlines the physical therapy approach of correction of biomechanics that might be contributing to excessive load on the tendon, targeted exercise therapy and soft tissue treatment before outhning medical treatments including medication, sclerotherapy and surgery.

How you get relief from Stress Fracture of the Tibia?

Symptoms:

Stress fractures are more commonly a cause of shin pain in athletes in impact, running and jumping sports. Overall limb and foot alignment as well as limb length discrepancy may also play a role. The incidence of stress fractures is increased by playing on more rigid, unforgiving surfaces.

Approximately 90% of tibial stress fractures will affect the postero-medial aspect of the tibia, with the middle third and junction between the middle and distal thirds being most common. Proximal metaphyseal stress fractures may be related to more time loss from sports as they do not respond as well to functional bracing, which allows earlier return to play.

Stress fractures on the anterior edge of the tibia, the tension side of the bone, are more resistant to treatment and have a propensity to develop a non-union when compared to the risk of posteromedial stress fractures. A simple memory tool for the problematic anterior tibial stress fracture is anterior is awful.

A classic case presentation for a routine postero-medial stress fracture is as follows:

• Gradual onset of leg pain aggravated by exercise.
• Pain may occur with walking, at rest or even at night.
• Examination-localized tenderness over the tibia.
• Biomechanical examination may show a rigid, cavus foot incapable of absorbing load, an excessively pronating foot causing excessive muscle fatigue or a leg length discrepancy.
• Tenderness to palpation along the medial border with obvious tenderness. A stress fracture of the posterior cortex produces symptoms of calf pain.
• Bone scan and MRI appearances of a stress fracture of the tibia. MRI scan is of particular value as the extent of edema and cortical involvement has been directly correlated with the expected return to sport.
• A CT scan may also demonstrate a stress fracture.

Treatment:

Prior to initiating treatment or during the treatment plan, it is important to identify which factors precipitated the stress fracture. The most common cause is an acute change in training habits, such as a significant increase in distance over a short period of time, beginning double practice days after lying off training for a season, or a change to a more rigid playing surface. Shoe wear, biomechanics and repetitive impact sports such as running and gymnastics have also been implicated. The athletes coach can play a key role in modifying training patterns to reduce the risk of these injuries. In women, reduced bone density due to hypoestrogenemia secondary to athletic amenorrhea (the female athlete triad) may be a contributing factor. All female athletes with a first-time stress fracture should be screened for the female athlete triad.

The classic treatment plan is as follows:

• Initial period of rest (sometimes requiring a period of non-weight-bearing on crutches for pain relief) until the pain settles.
• The use of a pneumatic brace has been described. Studies have shown a markedly reduced return to activity time with such use compared with average times in two of three studies and compared with a traditional treatment group in the third. In this latter study the brace group returned to full, unrestricted activity in an average of 21 days compared with 77 days in the traditional group. The brace should extend to the knee as the mid-leg version may actually increase the stresses across a mid shaft stress fracture. Once a stress fracture is clinically healed the athlete is advised to use the brace during practise and competition. Clinical healing implies minimal to no palpable pain at the fracture site and minimal to no pain with activities in the brace. Using this plan, there have been no reported cases of progression to complete catastrophic fracture of the tibia.
• If pain persists, continue to rest from sporting activity until the bony tenderness disappears (four to eight weeks).
• Once the patient is pain-free when walking and has no bony tenderness, gradually progress the quality and quantity of the exercise over following month. The athlete should be asked to continue to use a pneumatic brace to complete the current season until an appropriate period (four to eight weeks) of rest can occur.
• Cross training with low impact exercises, including swimming, cycling and deep water running, maintains conditioning and reduces risk of recurrence.
• Pain associated with soft tissue thickening distal to the fracture site can be treated by soft tissue techniques.
• General principles of return to activity following overuse injury should be followed.

WRYNECK :  Causes, Symptoms and Treatment

Congenital disorders are defined as those abnormalities of development that are present at the time of birth. It is quite a common problem exceeded in frequency only by those of CNS and CVS systems.

Congenital disorders can be placed in three groups.

• Those easily noticed by the mother, e.g. clubfoot.
• Those not readily noticed, e.g. congenital dislocation of hip (CDH).
• Those clinically undetected but diagnosed radiologically, e.g. spondylolisthesis.

Congenital disorders are more prevalent in diabetic mothers, multiple pregnancies, older mothers, etc. Male and female have equal predilection.

Causes

The exact cause is not known. Most congenital disorders begin early in the life of the embryo when cell division is most active. Although a few congenital disorders may be due to uterine malposition, most are believed to be due to genetic defects, environmental influences or a combination of both.

Genetic Factors

Defects in the chromosomes of sperm and ovum result in specific disorders ,which follows Mendel’s law.

Embryonic Trauma

Congenital disorders can also result from injury to the developing embryo at the time of differentiation of embryonic tissue into specific tissues by extraneous factors.

CONGENITAL TORTICOLLIS (WRYNECK)

Congenital torticollis is a condition where the sternocleidomastoid muscle of the neck undergoes contractures pulling it to the same side and turning the face to the opposite side. The exact cause of this condition is unknown; but hypothetically, it may be due to fibromatosis within the sternomastoid muscle.

Etiology

• Middle part of the sternomastoid is supplied by an end artery, which is a branch of the superior thyroid artery that is blocked due to trauma, etc.
• Birth trauma-Breech delivery, improper application of forceps, etc. may cause injury to the sternomastoid muscle.

The above two reasons can result in sternocleidomastoid muscle ischemia, necrosis and fibrosis later on.

Clinical Features

Deformity is the only complaint initially. Later, facial changes and macular problems in the retina may develop.

Radiograph

Plain X-ray of the neck AP and lateral views are essential to detect any congenital abnormality of the cervical vertebra that could lead to this condition.

Treatment

Principles

• During infancy, conservative treatment consists of stretching of the sternomastoid by manipulation and physiotherapy. Excision is unjustified in infancy.
• Surgery is delayed until fibroma is well-formed. The muscle may be released al one or both ends and the muscle may be excised as a whole.
• If the muscle is still contracted at the age of 1 year, it should be released.
• If wryneck is persistent for I year, it will not resolve spontaneously and needs to be interfered operatively.
• Exercise program is successful:

1. When restriction of motion is less than 30 degree.
2. When there is no facial asymmetry.

• Non-operative treatment after 1 year is rarely successful.
• Any permanent torticollis becomes worse during growth. Head is inclined towards the affected side, face is turned towards the opposite side, ipsilateral shoulder is elevated and the fronto-occipital diameter is increased.

Surgical Method

The most commonly employed surgical method is subcutaneous tenotomy of the clavicular attachment of the sternomastoid muscle. This procedure is inaccurate and dangerous as there could be an injury to the external jugular vein and phrenic nerve. Hence, release from its attachment on the mastoid process is also tried. Open tenotomy if done before the child is 1 year old, tethering of the scar takes place. If the surgery is done between 1 and 4 years of age, tilt of the head and facial asymmetry are corrected less satisfactorily. If done after 5 years of age, the secondary deformities are less corrected.

For older children or after failed operation, bipolar release of the muscle from both sides, Ferkel’s modified bipolar release or Z-plast of the muscle is tried.

Symptoms And Treatment of Hands Infection:

Hand is a very important organ of the body. Disorders affecting the hand could lead to loss of hand function in various forms and degrees. Thumb itself accounts for over 40 percent function of the hand. It is imperative that the problems affecting the hand should be diagnosed and managed correctly. The following are the various disorders affecting the hand.

CONGENITAL ANOMALIES OF THE HAND:

Some of the important congenital anomalies of the hand are:

Polydactyly: It is a duplication of one or more digits and may require amputation for cosmetic purposes.

Syndactyly: This is fusion of digits and usually occurs between the middle and ring fingers and is 3 times more common in males.The fusion may be only in the skin or all the structures. In the latter case, surgery is done early at 18 months age and in the less severe former case, surgery is done after 5 years.

Macrodactyly: This is a rare congenital anomaly and is characterized by enlargement of all structures especially of the nerves of a single or more digits. It is often associated with neurofibromatosis, lymph-angioma, arteriovenous malformation, etc.

Congenital trigger digits: Thumb is more commonly involved. It is frequently bilateral and is due to flexion contracture of the distal joint of the thumb. More than 30 percent of these cases resolve after first year and the remaining may require surgical release after 2 years of age.

Streeter’s dysplasia: This is a syndrome of congenital constrictions, which may affect any part of the body. In the hand, it may range from simple constriction to congenital amputation. To prevent distal circulatory compromise, it frequently requires surgical release by Z-plasty.

Camptodactyly: This is a flexion contracture of the proximal interphalangeal joint especially of the little finger. It may rarely be seen in other fingers too. Severe deformity in older patients requires tendon lengthening procedures. Clinicodactyly is angulation of the finger in radioulnar direction. Mild clinicodactyly is seen in normal children, while the severe ones are associated with mental retardation.

Cleft hand (also called Lobster claw hand): This is frequently bilateral and is associated with cleft foot, cleft lip, cleft palate, etc. There are two varieties: in the first type, a deep palmar cleft separates the two central metacarpals; and in the second type, the central rays are absent .Both the varieties require surgical excision and Z- plasty.

Mirror Hand (reduplication of ulna): Here the ulna and carpus are reduplicated and there may be seven or eight fingers with no thumb. Pollicisation of a finger solves the problem of the absent thumb.

Congenital absence of radius or ulna:  Congenital absence of radius is more common than that of ulna. The radius may be completely absent or in parts. The forearm is short, wrist is highly unstable and the hand is deviated radially. It requires complex and difficult surgical corrections. This deformity of radius absence is also called radial club hand and the absence of ulna is called the ulnar club hand.

Kirner’s deformity: This is a spontaneous injuring of the terminal phalanx of the fifth digit. It is a rare disorder and is more often seen in females.

Infections of the Hand

The effects of hand infection can be as devastating as major trauma. Trivial injuries like a scratch, a prick, small punctured wounds, etc. cause hand infections. Staphylococcus aureus (80%) ,Streptococcus pyogenes and gram-negative bacilli are the famous trio who inflict the infective unmitigated disaster in the hand. The sequelae of these infections are edema, abscess, necrosis, fibrosis and lastly contractions leading to a grotesque, debilitating hand. The presence of an abscess seems to send a message to the surgeons, “Drain me I’ll drain Myself! ” Hence, an abscess caused should be drained; the surgeon only has to decide the proper time and incisions. Early use of potent antibiotics has considerably downed the threat of serious hand infections.

Treatment

As elsewhere before we delve into the discussions on individual hand infections, it helps considerably to know the principles of treatment:

• Hands should be kept elevated to facilitate gravity to drain and thereby prevent edema and swelling of the hand.
• Following the treatment, the hand needs to be placed in functional position for optimum results.
• Early and appropriate use of IV antibiotics prevents pus formation (within 24-48 hours).
• If pus is formed, let it out through proper incisions at the appropriate time.
• Local anesthetic may help the spread of infection and adds more fluid to the already existing swelling. Hence, general anesthesia or regional block is preferred.
• Tourniquet is indicated, but exsanguinations are not preferred as it helps spread the infection (alternatively, elevation of hand for three minutes is ideal).
• Do not forget the all important hand aftercare, which has a direct bearing on the outcome of the hand function.

With the principles of treatment as a backdrop, let us now consider the important hand infections in order of importance.

Treatment of Hand and Wrist Fracture:

Colles’ Fracture

This is also called as Poutteau’s fracture in many parts of the world. Abraham Colles first described in the year 1814.

Definition

It is not just fracture lower end of radius but a fracture dislocation of the inferior radioulnar joint. The fracture occurs about 11/2″ (about 2.5 cm) above the carpal extremity of the radius.

Following this fracture, some deformity will remain throughout the life but pain decreases and movements increase gradually.

Mechanism of Injury

The common mode of injury is fall on an outstretched hand with dorsiflexion ranging from 40-900 .The force required to cause this fracture is 192 kg in women and 282 kg in men.

Fracture pattern:  It is usually sharp on the palmar aspect and comminution on the dorsal surface of the lower end of radius.

Clinical Features 

Usually, the patient is an elderly female in her 60s and the history given is a trivial fall on an outstretched hand. The patient complains of pain, swelling, deformity and other usual features of fracture at the lower end of radius. Though dinner fork deformity is a classical deformity in a Colles’ fracture, however, it is not found in all cases but seen only if there is a dorsal tilt or rotation of Colles’ Fracture.

Styloid Process Test

Normally, the radial styloid process is lower by 1.3cm when compared to the ulnar styloid process. In Cones’ both radial and ulnar styloid processes are at the same level and are found in all displacements of Colles’ fracture. Hence, this is a more reliable sign than dinner fork deformity.

Radiology

Radiographs of the wrist both AP and lateral views of the affected wrist and lower end of the radius are taken. The Points noted in the AP view are metaphyseal comminution, fracture line extending into the radiocarpal or inferior radioulnar joint and fracture of the ulnar styloid process (seen in about 60% of the cases). In the lateral view, the points noted are dorsal displacement and dorsal tilt of the distal fragment, sharp palmar surface and dorsal comminution of the lower end of radius, distal radioulnar joint subluxation, etc.

Classification

Contrary to popular belief, Colles’ fracture is both intra-articular and extra-articular and not only extra-articular. Frykmann’s classification takes into consideration both and the fracture of ulna.

Treatment Methods

Aim: The aim of treatment is to restore fully functional hand with no residual deformity. The treatment methods include Conservative methods, Operative methods and External fixators.

Conservative Methods

Here fracture reduction is carried out by closed methods under general anesthesia (GA) or local anesthesia (LA). The examiner holds the hand of the patient as if to shake hand. With an assistant giving counteraction by holding the forearm or arm of the patient, the examiner gives traction in the line of the forearm. This disimpacts the fracture and the examiner corrects the other displacements of the fracture. At the end of the procedure, styloid process test is carried out to check the accuracy of reduction. If the level of the styloid processes is restored back to normal, it indicates that the reduction has been achieved satisfactorily. Then the limb is immobilized by any one of the methods in the table above (mainly Cones’ cast) and a check radiograph is taken. The plaster cast is removed after 6-’8 weeks and physiotherapy is begun.

The common causes for failure of reduction are incomplete reduction of the palmar fracture line and dorsal comminution of the lower end of radius.

Operative methods

Operative treatment is rarely required for Colles’ fracture and may be required in the following situations:

Indications: Extensive comminution, impaction, median nerve entrapment and associated injuries in adults.

Modalities of operative treatment: Depending upon the degree of comminution and the intra-articular extensions, one of the following surgical methods is chosen:

Closed reduction and percutaneous pinning with K-wires: Here, after closed reduction by the usual methods the fracture fragments are held together by percutaneous pinning by one or two K-wires.

Arm control: This method is known to prevent collapse and gives good results in a few select cases.

Open reduction: in certain fractures involving of the distal articular surfaces (Bartons variety open reduction and plate fixation (Ellis’ plate) is advocated.

Indications: Same as for external fixation and for marginal volar or dorsal Barton’s fractures.

Advantages

• Provides buttress
• Resists compression
• Load sharing
• Early mobilization

External fixators

These are found to be extremely useful in highly comminuted fractures, unstable fractures , compound fractures and bilateral Colles’ fracture. Through a lightweight UMEX frames, two pins are placed in the forearm bones and two pins in the metacarpal bones of the hand. These pins are then fixed to an external frame and the fracture fragments are held in position by ligamentotaxis. The frame should be applied after obtaining closed reduction by the usual method.

Complications

The important complications of Colles’ fracture are listed in. Few significant complications are discussed here.

• Malunion: This is the most common complication of Colles’ fracture. Six important causes are responsible for it.
• Improper reduction: If the fracture is not reduced properly, in the initial stages it may result in mal-union later.
• Improper and inadequate immobilization: This fracture needs to be immobilized at least for a period of six weeks failing which malunion results.
• Comminuted dorsal surface: Due to extensive comminution, the fracture collapses and recurs after reduction and casting.
• Osteoporosis may lead to collapse and recurrence.
• Recurrence:  This is due to extensive comminution and osteoporosis.
• Rupture of the distal radioulnar ligament: This usually goes undetected in the initial stages of treatment and is responsible for the later recurrence.

Treatment

There are six options of treatment in a malunited Colles’ fracture:

• No treatment is required if the patient has no functional abnormality.
• Remanipulation is attempted if fracture is less than 2 weeks old.
• Darrach’s operation is more often indicated if the patient complains of functional disability.
• Corrective osteotomy and grafting if the patient wants cosmetic correction and if the patient is young (Fernandez and Campbell). Fernandez is a dorsal wedge osteotomy and Campbell is a lateral wedge osteotomy.
• Arthrodesis (for intra-articular fracture): The patient complains of pain in the wrist joint due to traumatic osteoarthritis following an intra-articular fracture. In these patients, arthrodesis of the wrist in functional position is the surgery of choice.
• Combination of these like Darrach’s operation with osteotomy, etc. is also tried in some situations.

Rupture of extensor pollicis tendon: This occurs due to the attrition of the tendon as it glides over the sharp fracture surfaces. This usually occurs after 4-6 weeks and may be repaired or left alone with no residual disability.

Sudeck’s osteodystrophy: This is due to abnormal sympathetic response, which causes vasodilatation and osteoporosis at the fracture site. The patient complains of pain, swelling, painful wrist movements and red-stretched shiny skin. Treatment consists of immobilization of the affected part with plaster splints, injection of local anesthetics near the sympathetic ganglion in the axilla or cervical sympathectomy in extreme cases.

Frozen hand shoulder syndrome: This is a troublesome complication, which develops due to unnecessary voluntary shoulder immobilization by the patient on the affected side for fear of fracture displacements. It is said that the patient has performed a mental amputation and kept the limb still.

Carpal tunnel syndrome: Malunion of Colles’ fracture crowds the carpal tunnel and compresses the median nerve.

Nonunion: This is extremely rare in Colles’ fracture because of the cancellous nature of the bone, which enables the fracture to unite well. However, soft tissue interposition may cause this problem. The treatment consists of open reduction, rigid internal fixation and bone grafting.

Do you want to get relief of your Lower Back Pain ?

SPINAL CANAL STENOSIS

Spinal canal stenosis is narrowing of the spinal canal and the consequent compression of the cord and the nerve roots. It may affect the cervical thoracic or lumbar spine.

Canal stenosis is common in lumbar vertebrae. One or more roots of the cauda equina may be affected due to the constriction in spinal canal before it exits through the foramen. This condition was first described by Portal in 1803.

LUMBAR CANAL STENOSIS

Lumbar canal stenosis is a cauda equina compression in which the lateral or anteroposterior diameter of the spinal canal is narrow with or without a change in the cross-sectional area. The nerve root canals and the IV foramen may also be narrowed.

Patient may present with low backache, neurological symptoms in the lower limbs and bladder, bowel dysfunctions in extreme cases

CLASSIFICATION

1. Generalized/localized
2. Segmental (local area of each vertebral spinal segment is affected).

• Central
• Lateral Recesses
• Foraminal
• Far Out

3. Anatomical area:

• Cervical (seen)
• Thoracic(rare)
• Lumbar (most common)

CAUSES

1. Pathological:

• Congenital , For Example. Achondroplasia
• Acquired- degenerstive , iatrogenic, and spondylitic.

2. Other Causes:

• Paget’s Disease
• Flurosis
• Kyphosis
• Scoliosis
• Fracture Spine
• DISH (Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis) syndrome.

3. Latrogenic causes ,For Example, hypertrophy of posterior bone graft, incomplete treatment of stenotic condition, etc.

Degenerative lumbar disk disease leading to thickening and narrowing of the spinal canal is the most common cause.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Lumbar canal stenosis is common in males above 50 years. Usually, the symptoms are fewer in number, but the patient may complain of low backache.

Cauda equina claudication is the common symptom. Here, the patient complains of pain in the buttocks and legs after walking, which decreases sitting, rest and forward bending. Patient may complain of hypoesthesia and paresthesia. Usually, the patient finds no problem walking uphill or riding a bicycle. Nerve root entrapment in the lateral recess causes claudication and sciatica.

INVESTIGATIONS

Radiographs of the lumbar spine consisting of AP, lateral and oblique views are recommended. However radiology may not show stenosis. The following points are looked for:

• Reduced interpedicle distance.
• AP or midsagittal diameter of the affected vertebra (Normal-15 mm), absolute midsagittal diameter of the canal is decreased.
• Measurement of the lateral sagittal diameter.
• Hypertrophy and sclerosis of the facet joints.
• Reduced interlaminar space and short, stout spinous process.
• Associated features like presence of listhesis, prolapsed disk, osteophytes, etc.

TREATMENT

Conservative Methods

This aims at symptomatic relief of pain.

• Drug therapy like the NSAIDs, etc.
• Epidural steroids may help in some cases.
• Physiotherapy with heating modalities helps.
• Pelvic traction may help relieve compression.
• Exercises:  General  conditioning  exercises like walking, swimming   and   flexion-oriented exercises are  useful.
• Deweighted Treadmill Ambulation: This consists of applying vertical traction with a harness  while doing the treadmill  exercises. This offers twin benefits of both exercises and traction.
• Belts and corsets (soft): These  may  offer  some relief.

Surgical Methods

Most of the surgical methods described for lumbar canal stenosis aim at decompressing the constricted lumbar canal. Laminectomy is useful in central canal stenosis. Diskectomy and osteotomy of inferior articular process to remove the hypertrophic elements help.

For lateral canal stenosis laminotomy, disk excision, partial medial facetectomy and foraminotomy help. Spinal fusion to stabilize the lumbar spine is usually not required as instability is less commonly seen in lumbar canal stenosis.

It should be noted that neurogenic claudication responds poorly to the conservative treatment but responds well to surgical decompression.

How Physical Therapy Treatment Works With Bone Injury

Stress fractures, a common injury among sportspeople, were first reported in military recruits in the 19th century. A stress fracture is a microfracture in bone that results from repetitive physical loading below the single cycle failure threshold. Overload stress can be applied to bone through two mechanisms:

1. The redistribution of impact forces resulting in increased stress at local points in bone.
2. The action of muscle pull across bone.

Histological changes resulting from bone stress occur along a continuum beginning with vascular congestion and thrombosis. This is followed by osteoclastic and osteoblastic activity leading to rarefactio , weakened trabeculae and microfracture and ending in complete fracture. This sequence of events can be interrupted at any point in the continuum if the process is recognized.

Similarly ,the process of bony remodeling and stress fracture in athletes is recognized as occurring along a clinical continuum with pain or radiographic changes presenting identificable markers along the continuum. Since radioisotopic imaging and MRI can detect changes in bone at the phase of accelerated remodeling, these investigations can show stress-induced bony changes in the continuum.

Stress fractures may occur in virtually any bone in the body. The most commonly affected bones are the tibia, metatarsals, fibula, tarsal navicular, femur and pelvis. A list of sites of stress fractures and the likely associated sports or activities . The diagnostic features of a stress fracture.

It is important to note that a, bone scan although a routine investigation for stress fractures, is non-specific, and other bony abnormalities such as tumors and osteomyelitis may cause similar pictures. It may also be difficult to localize the site of the area of increased uptake precisely, especially in an area such as the foot where numerous small bones are in close proximity.

Diagnostic Features

1. Localized pain and tenderness over the fracture site.
2. A history of a recent change in training or taking up a new activity.
3. X-ray appearance is often normal or there may be a periosteal reaction.
4. Abnormal appearance on radioistopic bone scan (scintigraphy), CT scan or MRI.

MRI is being increasingly advocated as the investigation of choice for stress fractures. Even though MRI does not image fractures as clearly as do computed tomography (CT) scans, it is of comparable sensitivity to radioisotopic bone scans in assessing bony damage. The typical MRI appearance of a stress fracture show speriosteal and marrow edema plus or minus the actual fracture line.

The treatment of stress fractures generally requires avoidance of the precipitating activity. The majority of stress fractures heal within six weeks of beginning relative rest. Healing is assessed clinically by the absence of local tenderness and functionally by the ability to perform the precipitating activity without pain. It is not useful to attempt to monitor healing with X-ray or radioistopic bone scan. CT scan appearances of healing stress fractures can be deceptive as in some cases the fracture is still visible well after clinical healing has occurred.

The return to spot after clinical healing of a stress fracture should be a gradual process to enable the bone to adapt to an increased load. An essential component of the management of an over use injury is identification and modification of risk factors. There are, however, a number of sites of stress fractures in which delayed union or non-union of the fracture commonly occurs. These fractures need to be treated more aggressively. The sites of these fractures and the recommended treatment.

Sports Injuries and Its Classifications:

INTRODUCTION:

Sports medicine, like all other branches of medicine, aims at the complete physical, mental and spiritual well-being of a sportsperson. A healthy mind in a healthy body is a concept, which is more true to a sportsperson than anybody else is. Positive thinking, fair play and sportsmanship should be the hallmark of a true sportsman. We, the doctors and the therapists, aim to keep a sportsperson physically fit so that the rest of the objectives mentioned above are attained automatically.

Like in other branches of medicine so in sports medicine, prevention is better than cure. To prevent sports injuries, the first step is to ascertain whether a person choosing sports is fit to take it. An unfit person taking up sports is a sure prescription for future sports injuries. A fitness testing for those who wish to take up sports, as their career should include various relevant parameters

However, one has to remember that fitness testing is not done only at the initial stages but needs to be done repeatedly at every stage of an athlete or a sportsperson’s life. The second stage of prevention of sports-related injuries is assessing whether a sportsman is fit enough to resume the sporting activity after the initial layoff. There is nothing more dangerous than an unfit or partially fit person resuming the sporting activity. It may spell a doom to his otherwise flourishing career in sports. A sportsperson has to satisfy certain norms before he can finally be sent back to the field.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPORTS INJURIES

Among the various classifications proposed for sports injuries, the one proposed by Williams (1971) is widely used and recommended.

Williams’ Classification:

Among the Consequential Injuries

Primary Extrinsic

• This is further subdivided into:
• Human: Black eye due to direct blow.
• Implemental: May be incidental (as in blow from a hard ball) or due to overuse (blisters from oars).
• Vehicular: Clavicle fracture due to fall from cycle, etc.
• Environmental: Injuries in divers.
• Occupational: Jumper’s knee in athletes, chondromalacia in cyclists, etc

Primary Intrinsic

This could be acute or chronic.

• Incidental: Strains, sprains, etc.
• Overuse:

1. Acute, e.g. acute tenosynovitis of wrist extensors in canoeists.
2. Chronic, march fracture in soldiers, etc.

Secondary

Short-term: For example, quadriceps weakness.

Long-term: Degenerative arthritis of the hip, knee, ankle, etc.

No Consequential Injuries

These are not related to sports but are due to injuries either at home or elsewhere and are very not connected to any sports (e.g. slip and fall at home).

COMMON SPORTS INJURIES

Sports medicine usually deals with minor orthopedic problems like soft tissue trauma. Very rarely, there may be serious fractures, head injuries or on the field deaths. There is nothing unusual about these injuries except that a sportsperson demands a 100 percent cure and recovery while an ordinary person is satisfied and happy with a 60-80 percent recovery. The difference is because of the desire of the sports person to get back to the sport again, which requires total fitness.

The following are some of the most common sports -related injuries one encounters in clinical practice.

Upper Limbs

• Shoulder complex

1. Rotator cuff injuries
2. Shoulder dislocations
3. Fracture clavicle
4. Acromioclavicular injuries
5. Bicipital tendinitis or rupture.

•  Elbow

1. Tennis elbow
2. Golfer’s elbow
3. Dislocation of elbow.

• Wrist

1. Wrist pain
2. Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Hand

1. Mallet injury
2. Baseball finger
3. Jersey thumb
4. Injuries to the finger joints.

Lower Limb

• Hip

1. Iliotibial or tract syndrome
2. Quadriceps strain
3. Hip pain
4. Groin pain due to adductor strain

• Knee Joint

1. Jumpers Knee
2. Chondromalacia
3. Fracture patella
4. Knee ligament injuries
5. Meniscal injuries.

• Legs

1. Calf muscle strain
2. Hamstrings sprain
3. Stress fracture tibia
4. Compartmental syndrome of the leg.

• Ankle Injuries

1. Ankle sprain
2. Injuries to Tendo-Achilles
3. Tenosynovitis.

•  Foot

1. March fracture
2. Jones fracture
3. Forefoot injuries
4. Injuries of sesamoid bone of the great toe.

• Head, Neck, Trunk and Spine

1. Head injuries
2. Whiplash injuries
3. Rib fractures
4. Trunk muscle strains
5. Abdomen muscle strain
6. Low backache

All these injuries have been discussed in relevant sections.

Investigations

These are the same as for any ortbopedic-resared disorders and consist of plain X-ray, CT scan, bone scan, MRI, arthroscopy, arthrography, stress X-rays etc.

TREATMENT OF SPORTS INJURY

This is discussed under three headings prevention, treatment proper and training.

Preventive Measures

The best way to treat a sports injury is to prevent it from happening. Nothing is better than preventing the injury.

Treatment

Treatment of individual sports-related disorders is discussed under suitable sections. However, a mention is made here of the general principles of treatment which is applicable to all sports injuries.

General Principles

• Concept of RICEMM: This sums up the early treatment methodology of sports injuries and consists of:

R-Rest to the injured limb

I-Ice therapy

C-Compression bandaging

E- Elevation of the injured part

M- Medicines like painkiller s, etc.

M- Modalities like heat, straps, supports, etc.

• After immobilization and rest, early vigorous exercises should be commenced at the earliest to prevent muscle weakness and atrophy.
• To prevent joint stiffness, early mobilization ha s to be done first by passive movements and later by active movements. To improve the strength, resistive exercises are added.
• Unlike the conventional once a day treatment, a sportsperson needs to be seen at least 2-3 times a day.
• As mentioned earlier, allow resumption of sporting activity only after the sportsperson assumes 100 percent fitness.
• Mind training is as important as physical training. By repeated counseling, improve the psychological status of the patient to avoid depression, anxiety and negative attitudes, which may develop during the injury.
• Orthopedic and surgical treatment to be undertaken at appropriate situations.

Training

The physiotherapist has to train a sportsperson in various exercises to enable him to keep his fitness level very high. After conducting a fitness testing, the therapist has to subject an athlete to various forms of exercises to increase the endurance, strength, running, weight bearing, etc. The following are the various forms of exercises.

Measures of Relaxation

After the vigorous workout mentioned above, the sportspersons are taught methods of relaxation and body stretches. Before an athlete or a sportsperson resumes his sporting activities, a fitness testing is carried out and only then, he is allowed to take to the sports provided he is 100 percent fit.

Broken Ankle (Ankle Fracture) – Types, Treatments, Complications

Ankle fractures are the fractures involving the distal end of tibia and fibula. Ankle fractures are common injuries and can vary from a stable fracture to a complex, unstable fracture dislocation.

Mechanism of Injury:

Fractures of the ankle can result from low-or high-energy forces. Fractures due to low-energy forces may be caused by one of the following mechanisms:

1. Rotational stresses to the ankle caused by twisting forces at the ankle joint while walking, running etc. This is the most common mode of injury.

2. Axial stress on the ankle joint results in fracture involving tibial plafond

The high-energy forces, such as road traffic accidents, cause severe injuries, usually fracture dislocations. The pattern of ankle injury depends upon a combination of:

(i) The position of the foot at the time of injury

(ii) The deforming force.

The position of the foot at the time of injury can be supination or pronation and is described first. The deforming force, which can be adduction, abduction, external rotation and vertical loading; is described next. Twisting force produces external rotation. Fall to one side produces adduction or abduction injury. The four most common deforming forces are: supination/external rotation, pronation/external rotation, supination/adduction and pronation/abduction.

Classifications of Ankle Fractures

Lauge-Hansen classified the ankle fractures based on the pathogenesis or the deforming force (i.e. the mechanism of injury). This classification helps in the manipulative reduction of the fracture, if the displacement is understood correctly. The first part of the classification specifies the position of foot during injury and second part of the title specifies the deforming force, for example:

1. Supination-external rotation injury (most common mechanism of injury)

2. Supination-adduction injury

3. Pronation-external rotation injury

4. Pronation-abduction injury

5. Vertical-compression injuries.

However, there is another classification by Danis and Weber which is relatively simple.

Modified Danis-Weber classification: This is based upon the level of fibular fracture and is purely a radiological classification. In this classification, the fibula is considered as the key to the ankle stability. The higher the fibular fracture, the more extensive is the damage to the tibiofibular ligaments and thus greater the instability of the ankle mortise.

Type A:  Fibular fractures below the level of inferior tibiofibular syndesmosis

Fibula: Transverse avulsion fracture at or below the level of ankle joint: or rupture of the lateral ligament complex.

Medial malleolus: Intact or sheared, with almost a vertical fracture.

Posterior malleolus: As a rule intact.

Syndesmosis (Tibiofibular ligament complex): Always intact.

Type B: Fractures at the level of inferior tibiofibular fibular syndesmosis.

Fibula: Oblique fracture of the fibula at the level of the ankle joint.

Medial malleolus: Avulsion fracture (fracture line horizontal) or rupture of the deltoid ligament.

Posterior malleolus: Either intact or sheared off as a posterior lateral fragment.

Syndesmosis: Usually, intact or partial rupture.

Type C: Suprasyndesmotic fibular fractures unstable injury.

Fibula: Shaft fracture anywhere between the syndesmosis and the head of fibula.

Medial malleolus: Avulsion fracture or rupture of the deltoid ligament.

Posterior malleolus: Either intact or pulled off.

Syndesmosis: Always disrupted.

Clinical Features:

The patient typically present s with a twisting injury to the foot following which they com plain of inability to bear weight, pain around the ankle and very often swelling around the ankle. Clinically the stability of the ankle joint must be tested by valgus and varus stress under anesthesia.  Associated injury to the tendons and the neurovascular bundles, which run in close vicinity to the joint, has to be ruled out. The state of the skin must be checked. The skin over the deformed ankle may get unduly stretched, resulting into necrosis, if not reduced immediately.

Radiological Features

Antero posterior, lateral and mortise view must be taken to define the exact fracture pattern.

Management

The ankle fractures must be reduced accurately. Since ankle is a major weight joint, any incongruity of the articular surface, or tilt or disruption of the ankle mortise can lead to early osteoarthritis. The aim of the treatment in ankle fractures therefore is:

1. Anatomical positioning of the talus.

2. To obtain a smooth articular alignment of the ankle mortise.

For management and prognosis, ankle fractures may be grouped into stable and unstable fractures, depending upon the position and the talus, and its instability on light stress. This classification is of importance in treatment and prognosis.

Conservative treatment

Conservative treatment is suggested in treating stable fractures viz. isolated fibular fractures without a medial side injury. These fractures can be treated by below-knee plaster casts for 4-6 weeks followed by graduated weight bearing In unstable fractures with displaced talus closed reduction is achieved by manipulating talus under anesthesia and protecting it with above knee plaster cast for 4-6 weeks.

Open reduction and fixation: This is advocated in unstable injuries and in those injuries where the ankle joint is not properly aligned.

Internal fixation is achieved by

1. Tension band wiring

2. Malleola screws

3. Plate and screw fixation for lateral malleolus.

Complications

Major injuries of the ankle may be associated with the following complications:

1. Non union: Neglected fracture of the medial malleolus may go into nonunion. In old injuries reduction of the fracture and the ankle mortise may be difficult impossible.

2. Stiffness of the ankle.

3. Osteoarthritis: If the fracture has not been treated properly leading to incongruity of the articular surface, early osteoarthritis may set in. The patient has chronic pain and swelling of the ankle necessitating ankle arthrodesis.

Achilles is a common overuse injury that occurs in people of all fitness levels.  The causes can be variable, but one factor that seems to be consistent with all cases is stress to the gastroc and soleus muscles in the calf region with irritation and loading at the tendon insertion at the heel bone.  This stress may be a result of continued forces placed through the tendon structure from activities ranging from standing, walking, exercise, to recreational activity or sport.

History

The athlete with overuse tendinopathy not ices a gradual development of symptoms and typically complains of pain and morning stiffness after increasing activity level. Pain diminishes with walking about or applying heat (e.g. a hot shower). In most cases, pain diminishes during training, only to recur several hours afterwards.

The onset of pain is usually more sudden in a partial tear of the Achilles tendon. In this uncommon condition, pain may be more disabling in the short term. As the histological abnormality in a partial tear and in overuse tendinopathy are identical. We do not emphasize the distinction other than to suggest that time to recovery may be longer in cases of partial tear. A history of a sudden, severe pain in the Achilles region with marked disability suggests a complete rupture.

Types of Achilles

Midportion Achilles tendinopathy

It is important to distinguish between midportion and insertional Achilles tendinopathy as they differ in their prognosis and response to treatment. We briefly review the pathology of Achilles tendinopathy, list expert opinion of the factors that pre dispose to injury, and summarize the clinical features of the condition. The subsequent section details the treatment of midportion tendinopathy.

Treatment of Midportion Archillies

Archillies tendinopathy Level 2 evidence -based treatments for Achilles tendinopathy include heel-drop exercises, nitric oxide donor therapy (glyceryl trinitrate [GTN] patches), sclerosing injections and micro current therapy (see below), In addition, experienced clinicians begin conservative treatment by identifying and correcting possible etiological factors. This may include relative rest, orthotic treatment (heel lift, change of shoes, corrections of malalignment) and stretching of tight muscles. Whether these ‘commonsense’ interventions contribute to outcome is unlikely to be tested. The sequence of management options may need to vary in special cases such as the elite athlete, the person with acute tendon pain unable to fully bear weight, or the elderly patient who may be unable to complete the heel-drops. As always, the clinician should respond to individual patient needs and modify the sequence appropriately.

Insertional Achilles tendinopathy, retrocalcaneal bursitis and Haglund’s disease

These three ‘diagnoses’ are discussed together as they are intimately related in pathogenesis and clinical presentation.

Relevant anatomy and pathogenesis

The Achilles tendon insertion, the fibro cartilaginous walls of the retrocalcaneal bursa that extend into the tendon and the adjacent calcaneum form an ‘enthesis organ’. The key concept is at this site the tendon insertion, the bursa and the bone are so intimately related that a prominence of the calcaneum will greatly predispose to mechanical irritation of the burs a and the tendon. Also, there is significant strain on the tendon insertion on the posterior aspect of the tendon. This then leads to a change in the nature of those tissues, consistent with the biological process of mechanotransduction.

Treatment

Treatment must consider the enthesis organ as a unit, isolated treatment of insertional Tendinopathy is generally unsuccessful. For example, Alfredson’s pain, full heel-drop protocol (very effective in midportion, tendinopathy) only achieved good clinical results in approximately 30%ofcases of insertional tendinopathy. Patients with more than two years of chronic insertional tendinopathy, sclerosing of local neo vessels with polidocanol cured eight patients at eight -month follow-up.

Other Causes of pain in the Achilles region

Achilles bursitis is generally caused by excessive friction, such as by heel tabs, or by wearing shoes that are too tight or too large. Various types of rather stiff boots (e.g. in skating, cricket bowling) can cause such friction, and the pressure can often be relieved by using a punch to widen the heel of the boot and providing ‘donut’ protection to the area of bursitis as it resolves. Referred pain to this region from the lumbar spine or associated neural structures is unusual and always warrants consideration in challenging cases.

Clinical perspective

Acute tendon rupture is most common among men aged 30- 50 years (mean age, 40 years); it causes sudden severe disability. Overuse Achilles tendon injuries-tendinopathy may arise with increased training volume or intensity but may also arise insidiously. Because the prognosis for midportion Achilles tendinopathy is much better than for insertion tendinopathy, these conditions should be distinguished clinically. Most textbooks suggest that rupturelim its active plantar flexion of the affected leg- but beware, the patient can often plantarflex using an intact plantar is and the long toe flexors. The condition that was previously called ‘Achilles tendinitis’ is not truly an inflammatory condition and, thus, should be referred to as ‘Achilles tendinopathy” pathology that underlies the common tendinopathy.

Whether you treat an Achilles tendon rupture with surgery or use a cast, splint, brace, walking boot, or other device to keep your lower leg from moving (immobilizing your leg), after treatment it’s important to follow the rehabilitation program prescribed by your doctor and physical therapist. This program helps your tendon heal and prevents further injury. http://www.alliancephysicaltherapyva.com/